TEN FAMOUS ROMAN FLOOR MOSAICS

Tourists examine mosaics in the Bardo Museum

Licensed from Getty Images

Over the last few centuries, so many Roman floor mosaics have been discovered it is now quite clear the Romans had a passion for huge and detailed mosaics, which were inspired by earlier Greek works. And though the Romans did not invent mosaics, which date back over 5,000 years, they created a vast amount of fine pictorial and geometric mosaics, as shown in the photo above.

As Roman civilization progressed, mosaics became a heightened art form that produced numerous masterpieces, ten of which I am delighted to share with you right after the introduction to the world of Roman mosaics, below. If you would like to learn how ancient Romans created their incredible mosaics, I have made a web page that explains how they did it.

Only wealthy Romans could afford to have their floors decorated with expensive mosaics that took much time and effort to create. But the cost was well worth it because the intricate mosaic images and patterns, made from thousands of tiny cubes and tiles called tesserae ("tess-er-ee"), lasted a very long time and were stunning to look at.

Furthermore, even walls were sometimes decorated with mosaics, in addition to ceilings (even rarer). Below are three Roman homes decorated with floor mosaics that have survived quite well.

Three ancient Roman homes with mosaic floors

All three images licensed from Dreamstime

It really is incredible how some of those floor mosaics look like stunning Persian carpets, and since they are made of bits of stone, they are very durable and easy to clean. And, beyond the physical appeal of mosaics, they made a strong statement about a Roman's wealth, status, and level of cultural refinement.

For the purposes of this discussion, I will focus primarily on Roman floor mosaics, so many of which have survived simply because they were protected deep in the ground from the ravages of time.

In the 21st century, the Roman mosaics that archaeologists discover are often large and exquisitely detailed. And, because these mosaics often display images of Roman daily activities and mythology, they provide us with a fascinating view of their ancient culture and how they used art and imagery in their living spaces, as seen in the photo below of an exquisite Roman atrium room.

A Roman villa in Spain decorated with colourful mosaic floors and frescoed walls
Image licensed from Alamy

What a stunning floor mosaic is seen above - so colourful and intricate, and it creates a wonderful ambiance to the room. I also appreciate those rounded walls covered with frescoes, and the delicate columns - the Romans really knew how to create beautiful architecture.

Many surviving Roman floor mosaics can be seen inside museums and excavated ruins. For example, the Bardo National Museum (very first photo) in Tunisia displays numerous Roman floor mosaics, some of which are massive and even displayed on the walls due to limited space. Another large musem dedicated to Roman mosaics is shown below - it is the Zeugma Mosaic Museum in Gazientep, Türkiye.

Large hall filled with Roman mosaics in the Zeugma Museum
Image licensed from Dreamstime

In the photo above, once again you can see how large Roman floor mosaics can resemble carpets or tapestries filled with intricate geometric designs. Additionally, you can see how the central part of these mosaics show images of people, animals, and mythological scenes, which I will explore in greater detail when I showcase some of the most famous Romans floor mosaics.

Both the bottom and upper mosaic seen above have one of those inner panels containing images of people and/or creatures - this part of a mosaic is called an Emblema. Furthermore, this inner panel is usually surrounded on all four sides by geometric patterns and/or floral swirls of acanthus leaves called a rinceau, which are seen in the photo.

The Roman floor mosaics shown above still look good after almost 2,000 years because the stone and other materials used to make them (such as stone, ceramics, enamels, glass) fade very little over time.

Ancient Romans used the word "mosaicus" for mosaics, meaning work inspired by the muses, the nine Greco-Roman goddesses of inspiration. They also used words like "Musivum", or "Opus Tessellatum" (which is more of a technique) to describe mosaics, which were used widely to decorate the interiors of public buildings and wealthy homes.

Wall mosaic showing Neptune and wife Amphitrite
House of Neptune & Amphitrite, Herculaneum, Italy
Image licensed from Dreamstime

Roman mosaics worked well as decorative floor pavements because they could withstand much wear and tear since they were made of small pieces of stone and other hard materials embedded in cement. Roman floor mosaics were also quite durable because of the supportive layers below them.

In contrast, Roman mosaics that decorated walls and ceilings were more delicate, required fewer layers, and were more often made of materials such as glass and enamel, as shown in the photo above - click here to see a close-up of this wall mosaic to see how it is an actual mosaic and not a painted wall frescoe.

For wealthy Romans, floor mosaics were very useful for the simple reason that carpets were not part of Roman civilization. Consequently, mosaics were an expensive but excellent way to create attractive and durable floor spaces, in addition to making a statement about a Roman's wealth, power, and taste in art.

The Pantheon's inlaid Opus Sectile mosaic floor surface

Four types of floor stones are used: Giallo Antico (yellow) - Pavonazzetto (white with veins) - Porphyry (red-purple) - Gray Granite - arranged in cirlce-square geometric patterns. These are the original Roman colours and patterns, although over 50% have been replaced due to centuries of wear and tear

Licensed from Dreamstime

An alternative to intricate and detailed floor mosaics, was to cover a floor with expensive slabs of marble and granite arranged in geometric patterns (called Opus Sectile), like the marble and granite floor seen in the Pantheon (above), which is also quite stunning, in addition to being quite durable. Actually, Opus Sectile is basically another form of mosaics that uses much larger pieces to create a great pattern on a floor, wall, or ceiling.

Whenever the ruins of Roman buildings are discovered, the walls and ceilings - and any painted frescoes or mosaics they contained - have been destroyed by time. In contrast, however, floors decorated with wonderful mosaics (as shown below) have survived because they were safely buried, which is why so many Roman floor mosaics have been found.

Nevertheless, despite being buried for centuries, Roman floor mosaics are often damaged, with some parts missing or discoloured, which you can see also in the photo below.

Roman floor mosaic in Italica, Spain

The walls and ceiling are long gone, but the beautiful floor mosaic survived. This likely was a bathing room due to the numerous images of sea creatures. This is a basic black and white mosaic, probably made using the Opus Tesslatum technique (low density tesserae, larger size)

Photo licensed from Dreamstime

Just like the mosaic shown above, new Roman floor mosaics are still being discovered today, which is always wonderful because they really are a window into the past that provide us with fascinating glimpses of Roman life, culture, and luxury.

Whenever I see mosaic floors like the one above, I appreciate the great imagination and sense of fun the Romans had in their art. Just look at all those interesting images of fish, dolphins, sea horses, sea serpents, babies hanging on palm trees, etc. And, just as our world today is filled with images of cartoon characters and other symbols, the Romans also had their own rich image culture based on their plentiful mythologies, works of literature, and fantasies.

1,800-year-old floor mosaics in the Baths of Caracalla
Photo from my Feb. 2024 visit to Rome

In the next section, I explore ten of the greatest Roman floor mosaics discovered, notable for their size, colours, and intricate designs. Every one of these mosaics is well over 1,500 years old, a testimony to how durable and resilient they are.

A fine example of that durability is a section of floor mosaic from the Baths of Caracalla (shown above) that has endured earthquakes and the trampling of millions of feet during the baths' 321 years of operation (216 to 537 AD). Roman architects certainly knew how to build things that last a long time.

Alexander the Great, Battle of Issus, 333 BC
Image licensed from Dreamstime

This is considered by many to be the greatest Roman mosaic ever discovered. Above is a partial view of the huge Alexander Mosaic (100 BC), found on the floor of the House of Faun, in the ancient Roman city of Pompeii, in 1831. In this scene, Alexander the Great is riding his horse Bucephalus while battling Persian King Darius III at the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, in present-day southern Türkiye.

This mosaic celebrates Alexander the Great's iconic victory over the much larger Persian army, which he routed through sheer cunning and strategy. The photo below shows a close-up of Alexander's face, highlighting the thousands of small pieces of stone (tesserae) used to create his features. Imagine the amount of work required just to create that mosaic face from thousands of small pieces of stone.

Close-up view of tiny mosaic pieces (tesserae) in Alexander the Great's face
Close-up of previous image

The close-up view above shows a typical Roman mosaic background of white tesserae surrounding the coloured image of Alexander who has very large eyes. The various skin tones are portrayed using stone tesserae of varying shades.

The nose, lips, ears, and hair are skilfully defined through small mosaic tesserae of both regular and irregular shape. A gleam to the skin is created using almost white tesserae, which produces a shiny skin surface. The expression on Alexander's face is one of concern - he is worried, perhaps a bit startled - but he is also determined to win, which he did.

View of the complete Alexander Mosaic, missing parts and all
Image licensed from Alamy

The photo above shows the whole Alexander Mosaic, measuring approximately 6 metres (20 ft) long and 3 metres (10 ft) high, and containing over 4 million mosaic tesserae. You can see how the mounted Alexander is in the thick of battle, and the spear in his left hand is piercing one of the Persian soldiers who are all in a panic - this scene is made much clearer in the reconstructed image below.

Unfortunately, sections of the mosaic did not survive the damage caused by the 79 AD volcanic explosion that buried the Roman city of Pompeii. By the time this mosaic was discovered, it had been buried under ash and pumice for over 1,700 years. Despite the missing parts, it is still remarkable how colourful and vivid this huge mosaic is.

Recreated Alexander the Great mosaic, showing every missing detail
Image licensed from Alamy

The excellent recreation above makes it very clear what is going on in this ancient battle long ago in southern Türkiye. You can really feel how all the Persians (everyone in front of Alexander) are about to be defeated. Alexander is looking straight at the Persian King standing on a chariot whose driver is whipping the horses to get away, trampling other Persian solidiers underneath the horses' feet in his panic to get the King to safety.

Original location of the Alexander Mosaic in a Pompeii villa
Image licensed from Alamy

In the photo above we see where the Alexander Mosaic was originally located in the ruins of Pompeii. The mosaic seen here is just a replica because the actual mosaic was moved to the National Archaelogical Museum in Naples in 1843.

The floor we are seeing is in a room located between two garden areas of the House of Faun ruins. This house is the largest and most elegant so far discovered in the ruins of Pompeii. Surely, the owner of the house was a very rich and perhaps powerful person.

Displaying such a beautiful mosaic themed after an iconic battle would have been very impressive. It is believed this mosaic was actually based on a Greek painting which no longer exists. This mosaic's tesserae were arranged in a special pattern the Romans called Opus Vermiculatum, meaning "Worm Work", due to the way in which rows of tesserae were closely arranged to form an outline around the major figures of a mosaic.

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2.	CAPITOLINE DOVES MOSAIC - THE ACADEMY - HADRIAN'S VILLA - 2nd Cent. AD

Capitoline doves mosaic, 2nd Century AD
98 cm Wide (39in) - 85cm High (34in)
From my Feb. 2024 visit to Capitoline Museum, Rome

This next mosaic, also known as the "Doves of Pliny," is one of the most beautiful and finely constructed Roman mosaics in existence. It can be seen in a section of the Capitoline Museums in Rome called the "The Hall of the Doves," named in honour of this superb mosaic that shows four elegant doves on the edge of a shiny bronze bowl.

Many scholars believe this mosaic is a 2nd Century AD Roman copy of a Greek original. It was found in an area of the vast Hadrian's Villa complex (click to see map) called the The Academy (click to see proof) in 1737.

Within the Academy is a circular building ("rotunda") called the "Temple of Apollo," to the east of which is a connecting room where the doves mosaic was found, as shown in this recent photo of the location (click to view).

Close-up view of three doves and upper bronze bowl
98 cm Wide (39in) - 85cm High (34in)
From my Feb 2024 visit to Capitoline Museum, Rome

Observe the play of light on the mosaic bowl looking as if made from real gilt bronze. Notice, also, the interesting plumage of the birds, the ripples in the water, and the exceptional supports under the bowl.

Additionally, if you look closely under the bowl handle, you can see the face, and long arms and legs of a figure etched on the "metal" surface. Along four sides, ornamental beads or buttons form an elegant border.

During my visit to the museum hall where this mosaic is displayed in February, 2024, I overheard people commenting how much this mosaic looked like a painting, and then they peered closely to see the tiny mosaic tiles.

To create this beautiful image, many thousands of tiny marble cubes ("tesserae") measuring only 3mm across (1/10inch) were assembled expertly, which you can see in the very detailed close-up photo below.

Close-up view of tesserae within the Capitoline Doves mosaic
Photo by permission of Gabriel Margaca - 2021

Observe how tightly packed those tiny pieces of marble are, looking so shiny and almost new. Is this mosaic truly over two thousand years old? The workmanship is undeniably very high and represents the work of a true master. We are fortunate this piece of art has survived almost twenty centuries so we can enjoy both its beauty and craftmanship.

Admiration for this elegant mosaic extends all the way back to the Romans who thought this mosaic was quite exceptional because it was a copy of a famous floor mosaic created by the Greek artist Sosus of Permagon in the 2nd Century BC. A great Roman author, Pliny the Elder, wrote a 37-book encyclopedia (Natural Histories), where he talks about Sosus and his great doves floor mosaic, as quoted below:

... the highest excellence has been attained by Sosus ... There is a dove also, greatly admired, in the act of drinking, and throwing the shadow of its head upon the water; while other birds are to be seen sunning and pluming themselves, on the margin of a drinking-bowl.

- Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories, Book XXXVI, Chap. 60

Some scholars experts believe this mosaic is not a 2nd Century AD copy. Instead, they think it is the original created by Sosus hundreds of years earlier in the 2nd Century BC - it is a matter of debate. Whatever the case, this mosaic is still one of the greatest mosaics ever created.

Just like many other Roman floor mosaics, the four doves mosaic was a central panel (emblema) bordered on all four sides by other mosaics, of which a surviving section is shown below. After its discovery in the ruins of Hadrian's Villa in 1737, the central doves panel was removed and placed on display, leaving the border mosaics behind.

Border section that surrounded the Doves mosaic
32.5cm Wide (13in) - 22.5cm High (9 in)
Bibliotheque Nationale de France

Within the image shown above, we see a repeating pattern of two kinds of plants or flowers, connected with intricate tendrils. Above and below are ornamental beads or buttons, the same kind that are also seen in the central doves mosaic. Once again, the workmanship is incredible, and the images of plants, beads, and tendrils is quite vivid and delicate.

Unlike the cental doves panel, the bordering mosaics were made of several materials, marble, glass, stone, and ceramic pieces, as indicated by the vivid array of colours displayed. It is interesting how the border mosaics contain materials not used in the central doves panel made entirely from marble tesserae.

Something quite exceptional about the border mosaics is how the quality and density of the tesserae is very high, because the work was done using the opus vermiculatum technique, the same technique used for the central doves panel. Typically, border mosaics are created using larger and less dense tesserae, which is the hallmark of the opus tessellatum technique.

The outer border was divided into panels of similar size, each comprising three floral elements. These were presented as diplomatic gifts to important rulers of the period, among them Louis XV of France (1710-1774) and Augustus the Strong (1670-1733). Six fragments survive in European collections, including in The Hague, Dresden, Paris and in the V&A.

- Victoria & Albert Museum, June, 2009           

After the doves central panel was removed, the surviving border mosaics were divided into several sections of similar size and then given away as diplomatic gifts to various rulers in Europe, as explained by the Victoria & Albert Museum, in the quote above.

Today, the central doves panel is in one museum, whilst the border mosaics are in other museums. It occurred to me that it would be very interesting to reunite those sections, fill in any gaps, and give the whole reassembled work a nice polish. It took several weeks, but I gave it a try, and the result is below.

Capitoline Doves mosaic recreation showing central emblema panel and border mosaics reunited
Recreation and image by myself - 2024

In this recreation above, we see a lot of patterns along the edges, and there are special terms for what these are called. The floral sections of the border mosaics form a kind of rinceau, whereas the beads/buttons patterns form a kind of guilloche, or secondary rinceau. A famous example of a carved white marble rinceau is seen in this close-up photo (click to view) of a 2000-year-old Roman temple called the "Maison Carree") in southern France.

My experiment of combining the doves mosaic emblema with its border mosaics is a modest success. Overall, I am pleased with the final result which is quite interesting because you can see how the doves panel and the floral borders really are part of the same mosaic creation. However, is this recreation accurate?

Not entirely, I must admit, because it is hard to know exactly what the border mosaic's corners looked like. Look closely at the central doves panel and observe how it has blue and red circular objects in each corner of its "beads or buttons" motifs bordering the doves. Therefore, the problem is whether or not the border mosaic also had similar images in its corners.

• First, the central doves panel measures 98 cm Wide (39in) and 85cm High (34in);

• Second, a surviving border mosaic section measures 22.5 cm High (9.5in), and 30.7cm Wide (12in);

• Therefore, a border section is just over one-quarter the entire height of the central doves panel. Using simple math, it was a straightforward process to figure out the entire width and height of the mosaic border in relation to the central mosaic. The problem was recreating the entire border, carefully making sure each detail matched and made sense.

The next step for me, after reuniting the Capitoline Doves mosaic with its border mosaics, was to recreate the ancient room where it was originally located, as shown below. That room, as mentioned earlier, was a small hall just north-east of the Temple of Apollo rotunda within The Academy section of Hadrian's Villa.

A photo of what remains of the room shows only a rotunda wall showing an entrance with a flattish arch, and a recessed wall niche on either side. Furthermore, one can see several holes above the doorway entrance where wooden ceiling beams were inserted.

Capitoline Doves floor mosaic in a room adjoining the Temple of Apollo, Hadrian's Villa, 2nd Cent. AD
© atouchofrome.com

A tour of Hadrian's Villa makes it clear how no expense was spared in its construction, and every luxury was indulged in. And that was the impression I aimed for while recreating the Hadrian's Villa room that housed the Capitoline Doves mosaic.

• The walls are covered in exquisite pavonazzetto, calacatta, and bardiglio marbles (white with dark streaks, white with gold veins, gray with darker streaks);

• A shaft of light from within the Temple of Apollo rotunda pours into the room, highlighting the beautiful Doves emblema and its bordering mosaics in the centre of the room. More light is provided by tall Roman lampstands holding two olive oil buring lamps each;

• The floor is covered in bird mosaics that compliment the main central doves mosaic. My inspiration for this concept came from seeing a large Roman floor mosaic north-east of Sevilla, Spain, that features panels of numerous birds.

• Wall niches on either side of the entrance hold a statue of Hadrian (left), and his adoptive father Trajan, right;

• The coffered ceiling is entirely covered with gilt bronze plating;

• Corinthain pilasters along the walls support a small entablature composed of modillions and egg-and-dart motifs;

The next floor mosaic is quite fascinating due to its size, complexity, vivid colours, and amazing "3D" motifs.

3.	OTRICOLI MOSAIC - BATHS OF OCRICULUM - OTRICOLI, ITALY - 3rd Cent. AD

Huge floor mosaic from Baths of Ocriculum in Vatican Museum
Licensed from Dreamstime

This stunning 13-metre wide (42 ft) floor mosaic masterpiece, dating from the early 3rd century AD, was discovered in 1775 in the Octogonal Hall of the Baths of Ocriculum, located near present-day Otricoli, Italy. This mosaic is more commmonly known as the "Otricoli Mosaic," and it is now housed in a Vatican museum, as shown above.

Particularly noteworthy are the lines of 3-D geometric patterns found within the mosaic, in addition to several scenes of dragon-like monsters in water, centaurs, and a beautiful Medusa at the centre.

In the photo above, some details are obscured by a huge porphyry stone water basin ("Labrum") from the house of Emperor Nero. This rare and hard purplish granite stone from Egypt was much prized by the Romans.

The full Roman floor mosaic from the Baths of Ocriculum
Original artists: Giussippe and Franciso Panini - 1779

Above, the whole mosaic is shown in all its glory - what a remarkable piece of art this is. And so much time and work must have been required to produce such a large and detailed mosaic. Furthermore, there are eight sections, each containing a lower and upper pictorial scene, divided by a thick circular band, known as a Rinceau, showing vegetation, fruit, and the faces of the four seasons.

Below the rinceau is another small circular band, called a guilloche, formed by two intertwining lines. These two kinds of decoration are very common in Roman mosaics and other pieces of art. Between all the sections are lines of geometric 3-D patterns that are almost modern in their design, colouration, and effect.

The pictorial scenes along the outer ring are composed of images of Tritons (minor sea gods, mermaid-like), in addition to Nereids (water nymphs) who often accompany the Roman god Neptune. These characters are shown beside the various water dragons (sea monsters). Above the sea creatures is an inner ring displaying scenes of centaurs and Greeks (not Roman gladiators) fighting with swords, spears, and shields.

It is believed this imagery symbolizes Roman and Greek civilization battling barbarians. The amount of artistry, planning, and work required to produce such a huge floor mosaic must have been enormous, a process that likely took several artists many months, or even years of hard work.

Close-up view of tesserae in a section of the Baths of Otricoli floor mosaic
From my Feb. 2024 visit

The close-up photo above shows many thousands of small mosaic tesserae that were used to create wonderful and vibrant designs that have weathered over 1,000 years of time. It is fascinating how Roman mosaicists used such tiny pieces of colourful stone, glass, and ceramics like an artist using strokes of paint on a canvas to create attractive and interesting designs. The next image shows where this incredible mosaic was discovered in the 18th Century.

Otricoli Mosaic's original location within the Octogonal Hall of the Baths of Ocriculum
Original artists: Giussippe and Franciso Panini - 1779

The beautiful drawing above, dating from 1779, shows the original location of the huge mosaic within the grand Octogonal Hall of the Baths of Ocriculum. At first, I thought this large and rounded hall was the Caldarium part of the baths.

However, I am of the opinion this was simply an elegant hall that served as a grand and welcoming room for people entering the baths. How spectacular it must have been to enter and see such a huge and elegant floor mosaic.

When these baths were still in their prime, I am sure the rest of the hall was also stunning, with walls covered in marble veneers, columns, pilasters, statues, and a high ceiling. It really is quite amazing how this mosaic even survived earthquakes that almost certainly caused huge chunks of concrete and brickwork to crash down into it, in addition to over 1,500 years of pillaging and weather.

If you visit Rome, you can see this magnificent floor mosaic in the Pio-Clementino museum in Vatican City. The museum is open Mon to Sat, 8am - 7pm (arrive by 5pm latest), and it costs (as of 2024) approx 15 to 20 Euros.

Judgement of Paris Roman Mosaic shown with bordering mosaics
Photo: MZBT - CC-BY-SA-03

Discovered in 1932 within the dining room (Triclinium) floor of a rich home in the ruins of ancient Antioch, this 2nd-century floor mosaic depicts a myth that was popular among Romans and Greeks, described briefly below.

Prince Paris of Troy (2nd from left) sits on a rock while judging which of three goddess on his right is the most beautiful. The god Hermes (Mercury) stands to his left. Competing for a golden apple inscribed "To the Fairest" are the helmeted Athena, the sitting Hera, and Aphrodite (far right) who wins, which leads to war. For the full story of this long tale, please click this link.

When the Judgement of Paris floor mosaic was discovered, it was just one of several mosaics covering the floor of an ancient Roman dining room. The two alternating images below show how this mosaic was at the centre of a group of five pictorial floor mosaics. Additonally, along three sides of the floor, forming a large "U", were areas covered with geometric patterns.

The image that fades in shows three long couches placed along the three sides of the room floor covered with geometric patterns. High-quality pictorial mosaics were reserved for the centre of the room where they could be viewed and appreciated, and not be damaged by furniture. Wealthy Romans reclined while eating, which was a mark of prestige and luxury. The upper mosaics are upside-down so they can be viewed correctly by guests entering the triclinium dining room. The lower mosaics are the right way up so they can be seen in the correct position by the appreciative dinner guests reclining on their long, luxurious couches.

The Latin word for a couch was Lectus. Hence, the middle couch was called the Lectus Medius, and this was where important dinner guests reclined so they could more easily converse with people on the left and right. In addition, they also had the best view of the floor mosaics and wall paintings. The left couch, however, was called the Lectus Summis, and this is where dinner guests of a lower status sat. Lastly, the couch on the right is the Lectus Imus, where the host family sat. This pattern of three reclining couches was very common in the homes of wealthy Romans.

The next image shows the Judgment of Paris mosaic without its border mosaics.

Central part of the mosaic showing a mythical scene
Judgement of Paris floor mosaic minus its bordering mosaics

The image above is a close-up showing the details of the three goddesses. Look at the garment and face details, the animal beside Paris, and the tree vegeation - very nicely done.

Furthermore, some of the tesserae appear to be made of glass and/or enamel that are quite vidid in colour. Unfortunately, some small sections, here and there, are missing - but this does not detract from the ability to comprehend and appreciate the whole scene being depicted. In the next image, I zoom in on the faces of the three goddesses.

Close-up view of the mosaic's tesserae

In the close-up above, notice how the mosaic pieces are more dense in the face area, almost an Opus Vermiculum approach. However, the mosaic seems to be almost completely Opus Tesselatum. Compare the overall denisty of this mosaic with the density seen in the Capitoline Doves mosaic I explored earlier. The Capitoline Doves mosaic has a high density of tesserae throughout (even the floral border mosaics), and the size of each piece of marble is remarkably small. Nevertheless, despite a less refined density, the image and composition of the Judgement of Paris mosaic is still superb - the work of a very skilled Roman artist who has left us this timeless gift.

Judgement of Paris mosaic being excavated in Antioch in 1932
Photo Credit: Wellsley College

Above is a rare photograph from the year 1932 showing the exact location in the city of ancient Antioch where the Judgement of Paris mosaic was discovered. I have created a yellow rectangle showing the mosaic's precise location. The three mosaics below are the ones facing the entrance to the room located at the bottom of the image (arrow). To the archaeologist's right you can see some of the geometric mosaic patterns where the lectus couches were located. Unfortunately, despite much searching, I could not find a recent photo of that same ruin, but I will keep searching and hoping.

It is fortunate for us that these wonderful mosaics were discovered in the 1930s. And, though they are not in pristine condition, nevertheless they are still fine examples of how Roman artists were commissioned to create several different mosaics to decorate the whole floor area of certain rooms in superb style. To see a video showing 1932 film footage of archaeologists and workers uncovering these mosaics in Antioch, please click this link. The next mosaic is the first of our Neptune-themed mosaics - and it is one of the best the Roman world has to offer.

Neptune rides the sea - the seasons provide bounty for the land
Photo: Tony Hisgett - CC-BY-2.0 - 2004

This huge 2nd Century AD Roman floor mosaic, showing the Roman god Neptune and the four seasons, was discovered in a seaside villa (large sprawling home of a wealthy Roman) on the eastern coast of Tunisia, near the present-day town of La Chebba. It was excavated in 1902 by archaeologists D. Novak and A. Epinat. This magnificent mosaic now resides in the Bardo National Museum, in Tunisia. The reason why the term "triumph" is used in relation to Neptune in this mosaic lies in the fact that whenever Roman artists showed a victorious Emperor or General in a triumphal procession, they would be shown standing in a chariot pulled by four horses.

It is believed this large mosaic, measuring almost 5 by 5 metres (16 ft), was not a dining room (trinclinium) mosaic because there are no geometric areas on three sides required for the dining couches. Therefore, this grand mosaic most probably graced the floor of a large room - a reception area or front lobby - that greeted visitors entering the villa.

The cumulative symbolism of the mosaic; the seasons as symbols of happiness and material abundance, the representation of the fruits of the earth, and the triumphant god, suggests an evocation of growth, profusion and material prosperity.

- Gifty Ako-Adounvo, The Mosaic of Neptune & the Four Seasons from La Chebba, p. 86, 1991

Romans who lived in coastal areas were very mindful of the power and importance of the sea and their god who had dominion over it. Therefore, such a mosaic in a Roman seaside villa would have been much appreciated for its overall symbolism, as summed up perfectly in the quote above.

A close-up view of the mosaic tiles forming the images of the 3 goddesses
Larry Koester - CC-BY-2.0 - 2017

Many things work well together in this busy mosaic. For example, there is a large circular area, known as a "ciruclar medallion" in the middle (expanded in photo above), showing a majestic bearded Neptune, holding his Trident, standing in a fascinating arrangement of chariot and horse-like sea creatures - an aquatic 'quadriga' - as he is pulled through the sea. Additionally, on either side of Neptune are two more mythological creatures - a Nereid on the right, and an aquatic centaur - also known as an Icthyocentaur - on the left.

Notice the ripples on the water, and the waves in front, all made of varying shades of gray and bluish mosaic pieces. Notice also, how Neptune is holding a fish in his right hand; and look closely at the expressions of the 'sea horses' (see below) pulling Neptune through the water.

Close-up of aquatic horse creatures
Mary Harrsch - CC BY-NC-SA 2 - 2019

Look at the faces on those creatures - I definitely see some attitude there. The ancient Roman artist had a sense of humour that carries well into our own century - and he even created mosaic reins around their necks, in addition to spindly hooves and long tails. This aquatic entourage really must have delighted ancient visitors to that home.

Another unique aspect about this mosaic is that, despite many other Neptune-themed Roman floor mosaics having been found in that same coastal area of Tunisia, this is the only one that combines that ancient sea god with representations of the four seasons, which I examine in detail below.

Triumph of Neptune mosaic in the Bardo Museum in Tunisia
This view of the mosac shows the circle and hexagons along the sides
Photo licensed from Alamy 2019

In each corner of the whole mosaic, the figure of a woman representing each season is found, bordered by different kinds of vegetation. For example, in the bottom right we see a lady bordered by roses - this is "spring." And then abover her (top right), is "summer," bordered by a summer crop of wheat.

Additionally, in the top left is "autumn," followed by a robed "winter" below in the bottom left corner. Notice the slender lines of vegetation uniting all four seasons - such wonderful symmetry and delicacy. Furthermore, all along the sides are figures of labourers gathering crops, and animals, such as a lion, a boar, and a dog, etc.

Finally, surrounding the main mosaic are borders made of decorative circles and elongated hexagons. Separating the border mosaics and the main pictorial area are two layers of intricate guilloches patterns.

Farm labourer gathering fruit on the ground
Sek Keung Lo CC-BY-NC-02 - 2009

On the left side, someone is gathering grapes, and along the top someone gathers wheat. Looking below along the bottom, another labourer (seen above) gathers what looks like nuts or some kind of fruit on the ground. Every season produces a great bounty essential to Roman culture - one of many themes expressed in this grand mosaic. And binding all the different elements is a magnificent white background that creates a perfect setting for all the pictorial images - it is clean, pure, and bright.

A close-up view of 'Spring'
Licensed from Alamy

The photo above looks closely at the lady representing "Spring", found in the bottom right corner of the mosaic. You can see clearly the details of her face and hair. It is fascinating to see how the ancient artist, using various shades of small marble and glass pieces, composed the mouth, the eyes, and the skin tones, which were then affixed into a limestone mortar base.

If you look very closely, you will that the arrangement of the mosaic tesserae is not that dense - this is a mosaic technique called Opus Tesselatum, where larger and less dense mosaic pieces are used to create designs.

And yet the artist, using surprisingly few mosaic pieces, effectively created the hair and greenish laurel wreaths upon it. On top of her head, Spring seems to be wearing a tiara and earrings, in addition to a necklace - it must have taken much patience and time to assemble all those mosaic pieces just in this small section.

I will now end our exploration of this extraordinary Roman mosaic with another quote by scholar G. Ako-Adounvo, PhD Classical Studies, who so perfectly expresses the emotion, beauty, and significance of this masterpiece in her McMaster University Thesis (click to access pdf):

We do not know who owned the villa in which this mosaic lay. We do not know which artist produced such a work of great quality in this little town of La Chebba ... What we do know, is that a mosaic of great beauty and unique character has been preserved for us, and that this oeuvre with its symbols of happiness and prosperity will continue to intrigue us for years to come.

Unfortunately, I just could not find any photos of the Roman villa ruins where this mosaic was discovered. Indeed, when looking at photos of La Chebba, it is difficult to find photos of any Roman ruins at all. However, if I do someday find a photo, be assured I will place it here.

Triumph of Dionysus over India mosaic from Setifis, 4th Cent AD
Licensed from Alamy - Ivan Vdovin 2014

This beautiful Roman floor mosaic, perhaps the most colourful and elaborate in existence, dates from the 300s AD. It was discovered in Sétif, Algeria, formerly the ancient Roman city of Setifis, or "Colonia Augusta Nerviana Martialis Veteranorum Sitifensium," a colony for Roman veterans.

While I have read the mosaic was located in a Roman baths, the actual structure of this mosaic, with three sides bordered by geometric patterns, strongly indicate this was located in a triclinium (dining room), where three reclining couches were located, just like #4 above, featuring the Judgement of Paris mosaic. As time went on, the Roman ruins were covered by Byzantine ruins, and now there are only very meagre Roman ruins in Setif.

Known as "Bacchus" to the Romans, Dionysus was the god of wine who could inspire ritual madness and fits of ecstasy.

This wide mosaic shows the mythological triumphal return of the Greek god of wine, Dionysus (Die-Oh-neigh-Sus) from his victory over India. The victory parade shows him surrounded by prisoners, a satyr, and many kinds of animals, including tigers, elephants, lion, giraffe, and camels. This is a very busy mosaic in how it portrays such a wide range of animals, people, and skin tones. I could look at this mosaic for a long time and always find something new to explore - what a great piece of art this is.

Close-up view of the Triumph of Dionysus mosaic central images
Licensed from Alamy - Ivan Vdovin 2014

Standing next to Dionysus in the chariot (left side) is the Greek goddess of victory, Nike, who is holding a wreath crown of victory over his head. On both the far left and near the middle are examples of Maenads dancing and playing music. In the very middle, you can see a satry with hoofed feet and horns, while captive slaves, with arms bound and dark complexion, are seen towards the right - these are presumbably people from ancient India.

Lower border mosaic showing floral elements, and a Centaur battles a lion
Photo: CanStockPhoto license

And look at the incredible border mosaics surrounding the procession - swirling plants, centaurs fighting lions, faces in the corners - this is one of the most fantastic Roman border mosaics I have ever seen, and very entertaining.

Of course, the sheer width of this mosaic begs the question - how on earth did they move this without 'breaking it'? I imagine they dug quite deeply below it, while carefully sawing it away from the surrounding ground, afterwards carefully supporting the mosaic while it was being transported. However they did it, they did a great job.

Today, this mosaic is housed in the Setif Archaeological Musem, seen in the photo below, taken from a great Youtube tour of this great museum, hosted by the very helpful Chris Joondeph who also provided some great photos.

Triumph of Dionysus mosaic in the Setif Museum in 2023
Transporting these mosaics safely must have been much work
Photo (from video) by permission of Authentic Travelling - Youtube

On the right side you can see another rounded mosaic showing Romans hunting boars. Above the main mosaic is the Venus floor mosaic, showing the Roman goddess in her aspect as Venus Anadyomene, standing with a sea shell. These two mosaics, grouped together in the museum, are the most famous mosaics found in the Roman ruins in Setif. Below is a close-up photo of the lower border mosaics of the Triumph of Dionysus, showing a centaur fighting a leopard.

Close-up view of a Centaur fighting a leopard showing the mosaic pieces
Close-up of an image Licensed from Alamy

The Roman artists cleverly uses a lot of black background mosaic tesserae to highlight the centaur and leopard. Notice how white pieces are used to skilfully show the musculature of the centaur and a sheen. The shoulder, pectoral, and abdominal muscles are all clearly defined. This is just one small part of the whole floor mosaic, so you can imagine the amount of work and planning that was necessary to produce this masterpiece. Centaurs were shown quite often in Roman pictorial mosaics, and the next mosaic I will explore is focused on the subject of centaurs fighting wild cats.

Roman ruins and Byzantine fortress wall in Setif, Algeria, showing area where Triumph of Dionysus mosaic was discovered
Fatah Abed - 2015 - CC-BY-SA-03

I will end our discussion of the Triumph of Dionysus mosaic with a look at the area in Setif, Algeria, where the mosaic was found in a Roman triclinium dining room. As you can see in the above photo, the ancient Roman city of Setifis has been mostly reduced to rubble.

In the 6th century AD, a Byzantine fort was built over the ruins, and you can see a wall of this fort in winter - amazingly, it can snow in this part of northern Africa. This area of the city is also called the "Byzantine Citadel". Apart from these ruins, in the centre of the city is a collection of Roman stele with inscriptions, as shown in this example of a Roman funeral stele in Setif, Algeria (click to view).

Pair of Centaurs Fighting Cats of Prey - 130 AD
58.5cm High x 91.5cm Wide (2 x 3ft)
Wikimedia Commons - Google Art Proj. - Public Domain

This fascinating mosaic, known also as "Centaurs fighting Wild Beasts," is not the largest that Roman artists created, but it certainly is one of the most interesting because of the violent scene being shown, in addition to a wild landscape and the colourful opus vermiculatum high-quality workmanship. The centaur, a half-horse and half-man, was a popular mythological image for both ancient Romans and Greeks.

This ancient artwork displays a scene of savage violence between two centaurs and three large wild cats. One centaur - perhaps dead - is lying on the ground (lower left), while the other centaur is about to throw a large boulder at a tiger that felled his companion. But while throwing, the centaur notices a leopard to his right preparing to attack him. What will happen?

I have read that scholars generally agree this is one of the greatest Roman mosaics created because it was quite possibly based on an ancient Greek painting, very few of which have survived. Thus, this mosaic gives us a glimpse of what Greek painted art looked like, which was said to rival famed ancient Greek sculpture.

In the next section, I explore the various elements that work well to create a scene of drama and tension.

Close-up of Centaur face and chest details
Close-up of Wikimedia Commons image - Public Domain

In the close-up of the centaur's face above, you can see how his eyes are not not looking down towards the tiger who felled his companion. Instead, he is looking to his right, at a leopard (shown below) that is about to pounce on him. If the centaur chooses to throw the boulder at the tiger just before him, the leopard will attack him. But if throws his boulder at the leopard, then the tiger will surely attack - a terrible dilemma. Whatever choice he makes, the centaur will certainly be hurt or killed.

He definitely looks surprised and dismayed (the open mouth). Nevertheless, his face retains a calmness tinged with modest trepidation (as displayed by the eyebrows). Moving to his whole face and chest, notice how the mosaic pieces of stone (tesserae) are skilfully arranged to form natural looking skin tones. I count at least six shades of coloured stone pieces used to form the skin of the centaur.

In contrast, his hair and beard are a bit cruder because they are composed of just four tones - two shades of black and two of gray. Despite that, the execution of the hair still works quite well, and we clearly see an older centaur, with longish black hair streaked with much gray. And surrounding the centaur is a background made of shades of amber and green. Now let us examine the threatening leopard, below.

Close-up of leopard about to attack a Centaur
Close-up of Wikemedia Commons Image - Public Domain

Yes, this leopard definitely looks determined to be quite nasty to the centaur. Looking up close at the overall mosaic structure, the meticulous work of the Roman artist is made clear. Look at the colour tones in its fur, the realistic eyes and muzzle area, the leopard spots, the sharply defined lines portraying a sleek, muscular, and dangerous cat of prey.

Several shades of beige and brown stone - I count eight - are used to create the fur. Notice how the outline of its back and top of its head is done in very thin and dark-brown or black stone pieces, so as to clearly define the cat's sleek shape. And, again, we see several shades or amber, green, and also brown and pink stone tesserae used to create the rocky and wild landscape. Now onwards to his feline companion.

Close-up of tiger and felled centaur
Close-up of Wikemedia Commons Image - Public Domain

And above is the tiger, with both front claws impalled in the felled centaur's sides. It has fixed its gaze on the centaur holding the boulder, realizing it better do something fast. And, just like the leopard, this cat looks like he certainly has the claws, fangs, and attitude to get the job done - poor centaur. Notice the vivid fur markings of orange and black on the tiger's body, with white fur on the undersides - well done and quite vivid, looking so much like tigers drawn by artists today, 1,900 years later - incredible.

As an artist myself, I really appreciate how well done this depiction of a tiger is - the muzzle, ears, claws, limbs, and eyes are precise and recognizable. Evidently, the ancient artist had a good understanding of how various cats of prey looked - which he perhaps learned by observing events in the Colosseum or other amphitheatres, where large cats were regularly on display during bloody events such as the Venatio and Ad Bestias.

Close-up of felled centaur's hair, arm and chest
Close-up of Wikimedia Commons Image - Public Domain

And now a close-up of the poor injured or dying centaur, showing multiple cuts and lacerations in its skin from a vicious encounter with the tiger. Again, the skin tones are created with just six different shades of tesserae. Notice how sheen on the skin is formed by skillful use of white tesserae. Blood within the wounds is formed by just two shades or red-coloured stone, and the hair is identical to the other centaur's: two shades of black, and two of gray.

Look at the far left side of the forearm and count the tesserae vertically. At first the number is 8, but as you move right towards the elbow, the tesserae are stacked 13 high. Composed of 20 vertical rows, the total number of tesserae in the forearm easily totals over 220 pieces, each of which had to be chiselled from stone, carefully arranged, and then cemented in place - that is a lot of work. Many thanks to the ancient artists who created these great pieces of art that reach across twenty centuries to inspire and delight us.

"Trinclinium of the Centaurs" dining room, Imperial Palace, Hadrian's Villa
Image courtesy: indiana.edu - 2012 - educational

The exact location where this mosaic was found in 1779 is very interesting because it was discovered within the ruins of the Imperial Palace in the sprawling Hadrian's Villa complex near Tivoli, Italy. Furthermore, in the northern part of that palace is a large dining room (click to see map) known as the "Triclinium of the Centaurs", or the "Sala a Tre Navate" (room of the three naves).

That structure in the rear with the wall niche has been somewhat rebuilt and reinforced, as shown in this old drawing from the 1700's (click to view) showing a much barer "triclinium" ruin.

The floor of this dining room was richly decorated with several "centaur-themed" mosaics, of which the "Pair of Centaurs Fighting Wild Cats" was the main "emblema" mosaic in the centre of the room, as stated below by the museum where the mosaic has been kept since 1846.

The relatively small image (emblema) was part of the floor decoration of the dining room (triclinium) in the so-called 'Main Palace' (Hadrian's Villa) - Translated from German

Altes Museum - State Museums of Berlin, Centaur Mosaic Info

The museum link in the quote above provides much information about our centaur mosaic - where it was found, when, what it is made of, how large, etc. But, unless you speak German, you may have to translate the text into English.

Additionally, in the video below, Art Historians Beth Harris and Steven Zucker explore the centaur mosaic in great detail. They explain its origin, significance, and the drama on display. At the end, they mention how great it would be to see the "Pair of Centaurs Fighting Wild Casts" mosaic centuries ago when it was with all the other floor mosaics.

In my opinion, this centaur mosaic was part of a larger floor mosaic arrangement looking much like the triclinium floor seen above in the #4 - Judgement of Paris floor mosaic.

Unfortunately, when you look at the photo shown above of the triclinium dining room where the mosaic was discovered, the floor is now bare of all mosaics, which are now in the Vatican and Berlin museums. When I return to Italy in 2025, I will schedule time to explore Hadrian's Villa so I can take good photos of the Imperial Palace dining room (triclinium) and other structures.

This concludes my exploration of this wonderful centaur mosaic. If you are ever in Berlin, go to the Altes Museum, where you can see it in person.

Floor mosaic from the tablinum room of House of the Tragic Poet
55 cm High - 54 cm Wide (1.8 x 1.7 ft)
Wikimedia Commons - Public Domain - Jastrow

Imagine the surprise of archaeologist Antonio Bonucci in 1824 when he began excavating the home of a wealthy Roman by the name of Publius Aninius in the ruins of Pompeii. To his surprise, this home was filled with numerous frescoes on the walls, including a beautiful floor mosaic (shown above) in the centre of the tablinum room. This remarkable ancient home provides visitors to Pompeii with a great example of Roman art and culture in the 1st Century AD.

In particular, the engaging floor mosaic featured above shows a theatrical scene of Roman actors preparing for a kind of play known as a "tragedy." We know this play is a tragedy because of the several masks shown in the mosaic. On the left, an actor is wearing his mask on his head, while the musician is wearing one over his face.

Roman actor getting help with costume - Mask of Selinus on a table
Close-up detail from Wikimedia Commons Public Domain image

On the right, (shown above) an actor is putting on a costume with the help of an assistant. Additonally, on a small table you can see a Mask of Silenus (shown above), which would have been very familiar to ancient Romans and Greeks.

Shields, garlands, streamers, vases, and statues decorate the upper part of the Roman actors dressing room
Close-up detail from Wikimedia Commons Public Domain image

Above the actors' heads, suspended from the columns, are small golden shields and laurel garlands with hanging decorations resembling today's party streamers. Furthermore, above the columns is an ornate entablature decorated with images of vases and statues - this is a very elegant dressing room.

Masks for a Roman tragic play worn by ancient actors
Close-up of photo from Wikemedia - Public Domain - Jastrow

You can tell the actors are are involved in a tragic play because of the two masks resting in a gold-coloured container on the floor, as shown above. The mask closest to us is probably the "Tragic Old Man" mask, while the white mask behind is likely just a pantomine mask worn by an actor who dances while others sing about the tragic play. Roman actors used 12 kinds of masks, as explained in this interesting webpage.

Roman plays often included much dancing and chanting accompanied by music, which is why a musician is featured so prominently in this mosaic. We see a robed and masked musician playing two wind instruments called a tibia by the Romans, and an aulos by the ancient Greeks."

To hear what an ancient Roman Tibia sounded like, click on the Youtube video above. And though the instrument being played is shorter, the sound is probably close to what Romans would have heard, and even the music sounds ancient. To me, it sounds like a cross between a clarinet, an oboe, and bag pipes.

It is fascinating how someone can play two reed instruments at the same time - one for melody (the chanter), the other for producing an accompanying chord (the drone). Unfortunately, the Romans did not have a way to write down music ("notation"), so we are not sure how their music sounded.

As you can see in the recreation above, the tablinum floor mosaics were very interesting. There has been some discolouration over the centuries, and the central mosic showing the tragic actors is missing. The mosaic is no longer there because it was removed and placed in the National Archaeological Museum in Naples - this is why today there is only a blank spot. However, many of the original frescoes do still remain on the walls of the house, and they are very worth seeing.

However, when I was in Pompeii during the winter of 2024, I could not enter the House of the Tragic Poet which faces the city's amphitheatre (a small Colosseum). You can always spot this house from the street because of the famous floor mosaic in the entrance showing a dog with the Latin words "Caveat Canim" (beware of dog). Unfortunately, the entrance was blocked and I could only look inside from the street (very disappointed), which is why I needed to obtain photos from other sources.

If you are in Rome, it is very worthwhile taking a bus tour to Pompeii early in the morning (return in the evening). Along the way, our bus entered Naples where they gave us a walking tour of the beautiful downtown core. Also, the bus stopped at modern cafeterias along the smooth 4-lane highway for coffee, snacks, and bathroom breaks. The Italian countryside is just so beautiful with views of Vesuvius and the sea - you will really enjoy your adventure.

Ulysses and the Sirens Roman Mosaic - 3rd Cent. AD
3.7 Metres wide (12 ft) X 1.3 metres High (4.25 ft)
Photo: Dennis Jarvis - CC BY-SA 02

Many thanks to Dennis Jarvis who generously shares his numerous and excellent photos, like the one above of a huge Roman mosaic displaying a classical scene from the most famous story in history.

This is the tale of heroic Greek King Ulysses, and his adventures during a long seafaring journey in the Mediterranean sea as he returns from a war. The story was written by ancient Greek poet Homer in his epic poem "The Odyssey," in 700 BC approximately.

During one of many crises, Ulysses orders his men to tie him to the ship's mast and then plug their ears to prevent being mesmerized by strange half-women, half-bird Sirens singing on a nearby island. These mythological creatures use their powerful singing to bewitch passing sailors into crashing their ships in order to drown and then eat them - pretty nasty creatures.

Fisherman with red lobster standing in his boat
Close-up of photo by Dennis Jarvis - CC BY-SA 02

The ancient artist had a sense of humour - on the left side of the mosaic (shown above) we see a fisherman holding a big red lobster he just caught while Ulysses and his sailors are in crisis. And there are fish that seem to be jumping through the air, while below him are two leaping dolphins. Meanwhile, on the right side of the huge mosaic, one of the evil sirens is using musical instruments to accompany their beguiling singing, and there is an upside-down fish just above their heads. I wonder if those wavy dark lines represent the sirens' singing or water ripples - hard to tell.

Close-up of two ancient Greek sailors
Photo licensed from Dreamstime - Apr. 2024

In the close-up of two of Ulysses' sailors above, they do not seem overly concerned with the singing sirens at all - in fact, they seem almost content while perhaps looking towards the fisherman holding the lobster. Notice the lines of ship rigging in the mosaic, and also the details of the sailors shields and garb, in addition to the ship construction. This is a really nice and fun mosaic, and the tesserae are closely packed, thus indicating this is high opus vermiculatum quality.

Ulysses and the Sirens Roman Mosaic in Bardo Museum
Photo licensed from Dreamstime

Above is a view of our mosaic in the actual museum, where it is on display along with many others. As you can tell, this mosaic is really wide - it is at least six times wider than the previous mosaic ('Tragic Actors & Aulos Player'). Interestingly, the mosaic just to the left of ours was discovered in the same Roman house atrium room. It shows a battle between the Roman god Bacchus and pirates, in the Tyrrhenean sea north of Sicily. I examine this companion mosaic more closely a bit further down.

The Ulysses and the Sirens mosaic was discovered in the ruins of a large Roman home in present-day Dougga in northern Tunisia. Archaeologists date the mosaic to the years 260-280 AD, during the reign of Roman emperor Gallienus. At that time, the city of Dougga was the Roman colony of Colonia Licinia Septimia Aurelia Alexandriana Thuggensis - the Romans really enjoyed long names and titles.

The 3rd century CE (AD) mosaic from the "House of Dionysus and Ulysses" (translated) in Dougga (Tunisia), was found on the western side of a water basin (impluvium) across from the main triclinium.

- Allusion to Homer in the Mosaic of Odysseus and the Sirens from Dougga, Sara Ramey, 2015

As stated in the quote above, the mosaic was discovered in a room containing an Impluvium, a rectangular and shallow pool that collects rain water that enters through a rectangular hole in the roof. In addition, such pools were located in the atrium room, the main central area of large Roman homes. The photo above shows the atrium in the "House of Dionysus and Ulysses" where the mosaic was discovered. Unfortunately, the impluvium is filled in and cannot be seen.

In particular, the mosaic was found on the western side of the impluvium, in front of an entrance to the dining room, known as the "triclinium", which I have discussed in previous mosaics. If you click or touch the image, the mosaic will appear. Below is a photo of the atrium room of a Roman home in Pompeii that has a well-preserved impluvium in its centre.

Impluvium after heavy rain in Pompeii House
House of Menander, Pompeii
Photo licensed from Dreamstime

You can see how this house's impluvium was recently filled with rain water because the upper part of the atrium room is open to the sky. The purpose of having such a large roof opening was to allow light and air into the home. Also, the rain water could be used for drinking and cooking if water from wells or aqueducts was not available.

Additionally, the whole roof was designed so that parts of it sloped down towards the roof opening on all four sides - this was done to increase the amount of rain that would pour in. Such a roof design was called a compluvium.

What is very interesting is how an impluvium had a switch that was used to divert the first few minutes of rainwater into the street to rinse out the pool. After a few minutes, the hopefully cleaner rainwater was then diverted down into large storage cisterns under the house. The ancient city of Pompeii, for example, was built on hard volcanic rock - consequently, creating wells was very difficult, which made having an impluvium essential - this was clever water management.

An interesting fact about the mosaic of Ulysses and the Sirens is that there was another wide floor mosaic in that same room, on the eastern side of the impluvium. This second mosaic, called "Dionysus fights Tyrrhenian Sea Pirates," also had a maritime theme, as shown in the photo below. Also, notice how the rounded waves along the bottom are the same for both mosaics.

Dionysys (Bachus) fights Tyrrhenian Sea pirates
House of Dionysus and Ulysses, Dougga, Tunisia
Jan Van Vliet - CC-BY-04 - 2022

What is going on in this mosaic is somewhat confusing, but I will try to make sense of it. The god of wine and pleasure, known to the Greeks as Dionysus, and Bacchus to the Romans, asked some pirates in the Tyrrhenian sea north of Sicily if he could have a ride. They agreed, and then tried to kidnap him, which led to big trouble for those foolish pirates.

The large rotund man in the middle boat is not Dionysus, it is his friend Silenus. The panther in the middle ship is our Dionysus who has transformed himself into a wild cat that is attacking the frantic pirates who jump into the sea and transform into dolphins. I believe his friend Acoetes, perhaps acting as helmsman, is also on board. This is a very interesting mosaic, with lots of action and characters. Additionally, just like many of the other Roman floor mosaics I have explored, this one also is a reenactment of a classic Roman/Greek mythology that was both well-known and popular in ancient times.

If you ever visit the Bardo Museum in Tunisia, you can view both mosaics, which are displayed together on the same wall, as seen in the very first photo at the top of this page. I will now move on to the tenth and final Roman floor mosaic, below.

Neptune & Nereids Mosaic - Bardo Museum - Sousse Room - 2009
Licensed from Dreamstime

The last mosaic I explore is certainly not the least of them. In fact, this may be the largest floor mosaic, filled with pictorial images, ever created by the Romans, as seen in the photo above. Imagine standing in a huge room filled with such a splendid mosaic floor - what a great experience.

Measuring over 1,400 sq ft / 130 sq m, this ancient and massive 1,900-year-old mosaic is overflowing with images of mythical sea creatures that surround Neptune, proud Roman god of the seas. It also has an interesting history associated with its ancient owner, and where it was found, which I explore in depth later.

In the 2009 photo above, the mosaic was still being displayed on a floor within the "Sousse Room" of the Bardo National Museum in Tunisia. However, in 2010, the museum decided to display the mosaic vertically instead, as seen in the photo below that makes clear how large this mosaic really is - it stands about 3 stories high.

Neptune & Nereids mosaic displayed vertically, seen from 2nd floor of the Bardo Museum in 2024

The man standing in front of the glass railing is standing a fair distance away, which also hints at the mosaic's size. Unfortunately, the lower part is hidden from view by the surface of the second floor. The white missing sections make it very apparent how much damage has been done to the mosaic over the centuries. This video that explores the Bardo Museum shows the mosaic from the second floor (10 seconds in).

I wonder how many months or years it took to assemble such a huge mosaic? And how many artists were required? Careful examination of the entire mosaic by experts has shown us that several Roman artists were involved because different artistic styles and quality of craftmanship have been observed.

The high number of large and exquisite mosaics on display in the Bardo Museum shows how prevalent such mosaics were in that part of the Roman empire (Roman province of Africa). I remember an archaeologist explaining how Roman artists in Tunisia were influenced by the earlier Carthaginian civilization's custom of decorating large floor spaces with highly detailed mosaics.

In the next section, I explore the imagery and themes within the mosaic.

Neptune surrounded by Nereids & Sirens
Photo: Verity Cridland - 2014 - CC-BY-02

The main theme of this floor mosaic is a grand procession through the seas that honours Neptune, shown above, who is standing in an aquatic quadriga pulled by four sea horses with long fish tails. And, on his left and right above, are images of half-bird people resembling the Sirens from Homer's epic poem "The Odyssey."

Below him - and all throughout the mosaic - are sea nymphs, known as Nereids, riding various sea creatures. But what is a nymph, exactly? They are female spirits of nature that can represent forests, mountains, rivers, and seas. And, unlike nasty Sirens, for example, who use their voices like weapons, sea nymphs (Nereids) are kind and playful. It is said that if a man beholds a nymph, he will become obsessed with them.

A Nereid, possibly Neptune's wife: Amphititre
Janus Korom - 2012 - CC-BY-02

The Nereid in this photo is found directly above Neptune, and she may be his wife Amphitrite, one of 50 daughters of a male sea entity called Nereus - the "old man of the sea." Amphititre is also known as Salacia to the Romans who knew her as the "goddess of salt water."

Notice the well-crafted gold and red garland rinceau encircling her. Notice also the subtle shades of her skin colouring, the surface details of the creature she is riding, and the orange garment gathered around one leg. Her whole circular mosaic is about 1.3 metres (4.25 ft) across, making the whole mosaic approximately 13 x 11 metres / 42 x 36 feet in size.

This may be Amphititre/Salacia for a few reasons: she is located in the very centre of the mosaic; she is located directly above Neptune; the quality and detail of her mosaic is very good. It just makes sense Roman artists would place the wife of their god of the sea in close proximity to him.

3 Nereids riding various sea creatures + 1 Sea Centaur
3 Circular + 1 Hexagonal Medallions
Larry Koester - 2017 - CC-BY-02

Above we see another three nereids, each riding a different creature - a sea bull, sea panther, and sea horse. At the far right is a sea centaur, also known as an "icthyocentaur." Notice also how three of the images are framed by circular garlands, whereas the top image is framed by a hexagonal border formed of concave sides.

Every pictorial image in the mosaic is "framed" by either a circle or a hexagon, which together form a total of 55 full medallions, as shown in the diagram below. Along the edges of the mosaic there are partial images with partial borders which are not counted (not shown).

Neptune is located just below the centre. Also, if you hover your cursor or touch the image, you can see numbers identifying all 55 main "medallion" images.

At first glance, you may see just a confusing jumble of images, but there is a very simple pattern at work. Basically, starting at the top, a horizontal line of hexagonal medallions is followed below by two lines of circular medallions, and then the pattern repeats all the way down. The number of medallions in each line varies between 3 or 4.

Notice how each medallion is separated horizontally by part of a lower and upper medallion - the Roman artists really packed those modillions in to form a tight grid. The horizontal line containing Neptune does contain 3 hexagonals, the difference being that his image does not have a defined border so as to allow a much larger image. Nevertheless, the white area surrounding him is indeed hexagonal in shape.

Lower left corner of the mosaic, showing details of the border mosaics
Licensed from Dreamstime

The final image of this immense mosaic is a view of its bottom-right corner. This is the only corner where the floral mosaics that border it can be seen, although the actual corner point has been destroyed, as seen in this photo showing the full bottom part of the mosaic seen from the ground floor of the Bardo museum. Notice how, on the left side, you see a "half-modillion" with an image of two dolphins and a trident. These "half-medallions" are not counted among the 55 full ones.

The border mosaics are actually rather narrow in comparison to the whole mosaic. They are composed of several colours of tesserae that form images of leaves, flowers, and fruit, thus forming a kind of rinceau. In my opinion, red, green, white, and black seem to dominate the colour spectrum of the mosaic, which contrasts nicely with the flesh tones of the nereids and other creatures.

Ruins of ancient Hadrumetum in present-day Sousse, Tunisia
Habib M'Henni - 2013 - CC BY-SA 3.0

Archaeologists have estimated the Neptune & Nereids floor mosaic was created sometime beween the late 1st or early 2nd century AD, when the area was the Roman colony of Hadrumetum, as seen in the photo above of ruins of the ancient city. As you can see, much of the city has crumbled over time. The city was located on the Mediterranean sea coast of Tunisia in the Roman province of Africa (see map below).

The Roman presence in Tunisia began after they finally destroyed Carthage, capital city of the powerful Carthaginian Empire in 146 BC, also known as the Punic people.

Location of Hadrumetum in Roman Province of Africa
Map created using part of image by Uwe Dedering CC BY-SA 3.0

These rivals to Roman power almost shattered Roman civilization seventy years earlier during the Second Punic War, (218-201 BC) when General Hannibal ravaged Italy for fifteen years with his huge army and war elephants. In one battle alone, he wiped out 50,000 Roman legionaries. The Romans were so traumatized that, for centuries afterwards, when they felt threatened, they would whisper anxiously: "Hannibal is at the gates!" ("Hannibal ad portas").

Hannibal's war elephants attacking Romans during Punic Wars
My remaster and colourization of an image licensed from Alamy

But the Romans got their terrible revenge seventy years after Hannibal almost crushed Rome, when they wiped out their Carthaginian enemies, and completely demolished their capital (Carthage) in 146 BC. At that point, the Romans controlled that part of north Africa, and the colony of Hadrumetum was established, its full name being "Colonia Concordia Ulpia Trajana Augusta Frugifera Hadrumetina".

Hadrumetum is now the city of Sousse, Tunisia, seen in this 2023 view of a grand mosaic promenade along the Mediterranean Sea and Bou Jafaar beach
Licensed from Alamy

For many centuries after the collapse of Roman civilization, the mosaic was buried under 6 feet (2 metres) of soil, until discovered in the late 1880s within the ruins of an ancient Roman home in the present-day city of Sousse, Tunisia (population 300,000), shown above. The mosaic was accidentally found by French solidiers while digging a storage receptacle within an olive grove. Some of the roots from those olive trees damaged the mosaic, which is why some sections are missing.

The area where the mosaic was discovered has now grown into a large city with beautiful mosaic walkways along the sea, and there is a great museum housing many mosaics, as seen in this photo. However, in the city's ancient past, the Neptune and Nereids mosaic covered the floor of a large reception room - called an Oecus - inside a luxurious home owned by Sorothus, a wealthy Roman merchant (sea trade and horse breeding).

When Roman mosaics are found, we usually don't know anything about who made them or who owned them, simply because so many centuries have erased that knowledge. But, in the case of the Neptune and Nereids mosaic, we do know who owned the house where it was found, and it is an interesting story.

Sorothus used the money he made trading goods by sea with other Roman provinces to build a really large home with many rooms. One of those rooms, called an oecus, was a large reception area room that contained the large Neptune & Nereids floor mosaic, which certainly must have impressed visitors. But that was not the only notable floor mosaic in his home. The diagram (below) of Sorothus' house shows three other rooms whose floors were covered with great floor mosaics. Most of the other floor spaces were covered with plain, white mosaics.

House of Sorothus rooms where mosaics were discovered

Sorothus had a strong interest in horses, which he raised on his farm, and he also raced them with great success, and even in Rome, itself. Obviously, horses were part of his business trade (stock breeder). And we know this simply because there are large floor mosaics in his home that display his horses and his farm. These mosaics showcased his great pride in his horses and his love for them.

In particular, there are two additional floor mosaics in other rooms of his house displaying his winning racehorses. I have reconstructed the surviving parts of a floor mosaic titled "Mosaic of Stud Farms", seen below. It was destroyed in World War II, when the building housing it was bombed by air. It was thought lost, but some parts were recovered, and I have attempted to piece together parts that survived to create a partial mosaic, seen below.

Sorothus' winning horses and his farmland
Reconstruction using Public Domain images

This mosaic shows Sorothus' farm, his winning horses and their names - "Amor" (love), "Dominator" (boss), "Adorandus" (adorable), "Crinitus" (hairy), "Ferox" (fierce), and "Pegasus". The slender palm tree between each pair of horses symbolizes victory, just like the palm fronds on top of their heads. Romans loved their horses and gave them wonderful names, as explained in this fascinating blog article. Unfortunately, there are large gaps in the mosaic.

Sousse Museum in 1910, Hall of Honour of the 4th Tunisian Riflemen, seen before destruction in World War 2. Mosaic of Stud Farms (right wall) and Panther Mosaic (above fireplace) from House of Sorothus Roman Villa are seen

Public Domain Image

Above is an amazing photo from 1910 showing that mosaic before it was destroyed. At that time, it was located in the first Sousse museum opened in 1888. It was displayed on a wall in a large room with a long name: "The Hall of Honour of the Fourth Tunisian Riflemen". Regrettably, only half the mosaic can be seen - too bad the entire mosaic was not photographed - but such is life. It is hard to believe that museums full of such precious antiquities were destroyed during the war - such a tragedy.

If you would like to explore how the Romans made their amazing mosaics - I have created a page that explains how they did it. I use great photos and diagrams to explore the various techniques and materials they used to create detailed and colourful mosaics that have lasted 2,000 years - a really fascinating story.

This concludes my look at ten of the greatest Roman floor mosaics. And, certainly, there are many other Roman mosaics that are also outstanding. Unfortunately, it would take many pages to explore a good number of them, and it would take even more pages to explore them fully in detail.

Much hard work was required of archaeologists and others who made it possible for the House of Sorothus mosaics to be displayed in museums today. For example, the huge Neptune and Nereids floor mosaic had to be extracted carefully from the ground in sections, securely boxed, transported by a train, and then reassembled and repaired in the museum.

In fact, every ancient Roman mosaic you see displayed within a museum went through a long journey of discovery, excavation, extraction, transportation, conservation, etc. Many thanks to the hard-working archaeologists and historians who laboured so hard over the last two hundred years to preserve these incredible Roman mosaics so we can enjoy them in the 21st century.

I hope you enjoyed your exploration. If you have any comments, please email me. I really enjoy receiving the wonderful emails from people who send me their perspectives, comments, and questions. I always respect everyone's email privacy. The only emails I send to people are replies to emails they send me.